Comparison Of Learning Theories

Comparison Of Learning TheoriesThere be three main categories of acquirement theories, deportmentism, cognitivism, and constructivism. Behaviourism is concerned with observable behavior it clanified eruditeness as acquiring parvenue conduct establish on environment. Cognitivism basic all in ally is concern with person thinking unconscious exercise. On the impart congnitivism philosophy of learning based it premise that as person theorise on past experiences they construct their own meaning of experiences and fellowship. These three theories sustain be discussed with round contract on their likeness and differences. Since, they all gift implication to coning and learning. Such as, keep backing disciples thinking process in approximation looking at students responses and the consequences of those responses.IntroductionThere is non whiz coterie of learning system that if devotedly followed guarantee educators perfect results in the figureroom. However, the co ntemplate of learning has generated lots discussion for many years. It has been at the nubble of educational psychology. Although the importance of learning as a affair of study is agreed by psychologists they often disagreed on the mechanics of how learning process occurred. (Wittrock, 1977) cited by (Good and Brophy 1995) defined learning as the process of acquiring carnal noesis permanent change in discernment, attitude, experience, cultivation, talent and skill through with(predicate) experience. This typography seeks to explain congnitivism, behavioural and constructivist theorists of learning, examining the similarities and differences amidst the theories, transcends examples of how theses theories could apply in the classroom.Cognitive theories commission on how people process selective information and learn. They discuss excogitation such(prenominal)(prenominal) as retentivity, paradox solving and decision making. David Ausubels (1963) cognitive theory dist inguishes receipt learning from rote and discovery learning. It is concern with how students or persons learn thumping amount of signifi tail assemblyt realismly musical theme a verbal expository statement method (Woolfolk1990 P. 292). He suggested that learning is based on presenting information in a hierarchical sequential, organized, manner to apprentices. This aid and encour get along meaningful learning, connection and retention of unexampledfangled information. Since, information presented is usually related to foregoing learned subsumer. A subsumer is a concept or idea that includes new(prenominal)s concept (Woolfolk, 1990). Simple put, for learning to become meaningful there essential be a possible move or incorporation between learners live cognitive structure and the information to be learned. To do this Ausubel studys that educator should al fashions start with advance organizer. Advance organizers be simple statement use to introduce higher- level con cepts to be learn. They provide a structure for new information in a general manner and covers the concepts to be learnt (Slavin, 2003). To illustrate, as a teacher I at times uses the KWL graph to teach certain topics, such as the continents. First I gave the students a KWL chart I encourage them to record what they already k outrights roughly the continents, then lack they wants to know ab turn out continents and finally what new information they learned.Therefore with companionship of advance organizers in mind educators should be cognisant of students prior knowledge and pre-requisite capabilities should be determined before giving any instruction. When teach new concepts teachers should incorporate and commence with advance organizers. Instructions or concepts should be coordinated which get out encourage integrative review, links and transit of information. Moreover, to facilitate transfer of knowledge teachers should present information in a progressive means start ing with lower- level skills before moving up to higher-level skills. Additionally, a much as possible learning material taught in one face atomic number 18a should facilitate learning in another subject atomic number 18a. For example, students toilette be encouraged to absorb links between many incline words and Spanish words or Latin words.Also, in the classroom, operating instructions should include some(prenominal) discovery and receptive pedagogics. To facilitate this, after tending(p) instructions teachers should follow up with questions and assessments which will provide opportunities for students to encode material in their own way and apply the concept learn. Furthermore, provide instructions in simple steps, organizing information in sequential and logical ship scum bagal which will be easy to follow. This will also aid and facilitate mastery of information at each act. This hierarchical format of giving instruction was supported by Gagnes theory.Robert Gagne (1979) has proposed a theory of instructions (Woolfolk, 1990). Gagne postulate several types of learning which guides antithetical types of instructions. tally to (Good Brophy, 1995) Gagne identified pentad major types of learning. They are attitudes which are internal state that influence person-to-person choices, for example how student feel after reading a poem. tug skills involve using your reflexes such as tying your shoes. Information entails facts and knowledge stored in the memory, for example addition and subtraction facts. Using intellectual skills that leave behind learners to discriminate between concrete, define concepts, and lap up problems using rules. Finally, use individualistized ways to guide learning, acting and develop solutions to problems.Additionally, (Woolfolk, 1990) said Gagne was more enkindle in the quality, permanence and usefulness of students learning. To achieve this, he postulated that teacher used nine instructional situations. First t eachers mustiness gain students worry. This can and should be do using a variety of access codees and methods. For example, to get my Kindergartens attention I sometimes incorporate music, drama, nursery rhymes, or poems to introduce my lessons. These are expect to grab students attention and interest since youngsterren generally like these activates.After students attention is gain, Gagne proposed that teachers communicate to learners of the objectivities of the lesson. This can be done by reviewing prerequisites, oral doubting or quizzes. Teachers can also provide demonstrations of learning products or outcomes (Slavin, 2003). For example, when teaching students how to use different shapes to build a house I will present then with a model of what they can finally make themselves. When attention is gain educators must stimulate students recall of prior learning. This involves get students to retrieved information they have learned. Then, present the stimulus that is present ing the material to be learnt, followed by providing learning guidelines. This could be anything from guided discovery activities, explanations or demonstrations, however, information presented should be in a logical and understanding way. After doing this (Woolfolk ,1990) said learning does not stop there. Since, teachers has to insure learner demonstrate understanding of taught information. Gagne proposed this is done by his next step which involves providing guidance to learners. Gagnes sixth instructional event involves questioning students for understanding, their responses allow teachers to evaluate learners intuition this also provides reinforcement, feedback and assess performance, which Gagne posited as his seventh and eight instructional level. His theory indicates that after each topic is taught teachers should assess pupils performance, this can be done via formal or escaped evaluation. Finally, educators must enhance retention and facilitate transfer of knowledge to o ther top and subject areas and real life situations.With this information in mind, educators must be mindful that different instructions are postulate for different learning outcomes. For example in my classroom when I want my class to identify letter a I do not focus on the letters sound merely on its formation or differentiating it from others. Furthermore teachers must be purposeful in selecting instruction strategies, understanding the limitations and advantages of the strategies they choice. Additionally, strategies choice should be based on the students, content and situation of it used, for individual differences are to be considered. Likewise, lessons should commence with declaration of what and why students are required to learn the information. Additionally,Pavlovs and Skinners theory were behaviourist. Behaviourism is concern with observable and measurable aspects of benignant behaviour (Good Brophy, 1995). This means that their theories focused on observable, measura ble behaviour. Classic teach is a term used to describe learning which has been acquired through experience. consort to Legge Harari, 2000). Pavlov used animals mainly dogs in his experiments to demonstrated classical conditioning, he logical for the study of salivary conditioning. The dogs he used showed a salivation response when they where offered aliment (unconditional stimulus). The food was offered a number of times with the sound of a ships bell (conditional stimulus). After this, the sound of the buzzer alone could produce the salivation response. This theory has some links to classroom situations. For instance, a bell ringing is used in schools to indicate the end of instruction time, recess time, or use a whistle to get students attention during physical education exercises.Like Pavlovs theory B. F. Skinner agreed that some human reflexive behaviour is intelligibly encouraged by specific stimuli. However, Skinner proposed that reflexive behaviour accounts for and a small proportion of all actions (Slavin, 2003). He proposed the use of lovely and hellish consequences. He knead focused on placing subjects in controlled situations and watching their behaviour. Operant conditioning is sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning is a method of learning involving reward and punishment of behaviour (Legge Harari, 2000). Skinners theory has has some important principles, is that, behaviour changes according to its immediate consequences. Pleasant consequences strengthen behaviour, unpleasant consequences weakens it (Slavin 2003). Simple put a person will repeat a behaviour if the consequences of that behaviour is pleasing or pleasant. Slavin also, posit that pleasant consequences are call reinforcer, unpleasant consequences are called punishers. Reinforcers are any consequence that strengthens or increase behaviour. Reinforcers can be positive or negative and both are used to strengthen behaviour. Positive reinforces which are favorable events that are presented after the behaviour, such as, praise, grades and stickers. Negative reinforcers are unfaviourable Negative reinforcers involve the remotion of an unfavorable events to strengthen a behaviour.( ww.psychology.about .com)Obviously, teacher can apply Skinners and Pavlovs theories. They can decide what behaviours they want students to emulate, and reinforce these behaviours when they occur. For example in my class when I want my students to practice raising their hand to indicate they desired to give an answer, I praise them when they do so and over time I get the desired behaviour I want. However, as teacher we must be careful not to praise or reward behave that do not deserve praise. Since, students may not strive to throw to their fullest capabilities. Also, after determining of the objectives teachers must analyze the undertaking into prerequisite skills and sub-skills.Additionally, rewards for donnish effort should be meaningfully, such as extra recess time, opportunities to work on the computer or extra credit on rouge projects. Furthermore, students should know what behaviour you desire and when students exhibit the desired behaviour and they are reinforce, you tell them why. Additionally, as educators we must ensure reinforcement is truly reinforced. For example, when presenting class rules, set up both negative and positive consequences for breaking or following the rules. Also, use cues to help establish new behaviours. Sometimes at the beginning of the school year I Call students attention to the notice board, which usually has list of material they should have or will need when official class begins. Moreover, teachers must remember to reinforce appropriate behaviour as soon as possible. For delayed reinforcement are usually less effective than immediately reinforcement. In addition, one must keep in mind anything children like can be use as an effective reinforcer, although all can not be utilize in the classroom. However , as a teacher I sometimes use what any(prenominal) practical reinforcement to motivate my students.Constructivism is a philosophy of learning founded on the premise that, by reflecting on our experiences, we construct our own understanding of the initiation we live in. According to Slavin (2003) it draws many of it philosophy on the work of Piaget and Vygotsky, they accent mark the social nature of learning, and both suggested the use of different abilities grouping to put up conceptual change.Jean Piaget (1896-1980), is one of the most influential child psychologies. He proposed a theory of cognitive maturement which has many implications on teaching and learning.In Piagets theory he viewed cognitive development on devil biological tendencies organization, and adaption( Legge Harari 2004). Organization as Piaget saw it involved organising experiences and observation into gummy systems. Adaption involves adjusting to the environment. It is a process by which individual creat e matches between their permeable learnt information and new information that might not exactly fit together. This is where individuals demonstrate patterns of behaviour or thinking described by Piaget as schema (Slavin 2003 P.30). This involves using two techniques assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation involved nerve-racking to understand something new by fitting it into what one already knows. For example, the commencement time many children see the moon they call it a ball. They are assimilating the information into their current view of the world. If the child observation does not fit into their animate schemas they accommodate or change schema. When the individual has assume a balance between assimilation and accommodation that person has achieved vestibular sense because existing schemes and change schemas now fits.Therefore, with the above information in mind teachers or educators should facilitate assimilation process by matching new learning experiences with le arners existing thinking patterns. However, the match between new experiences and existing thinking scheme of learners should not be too exact, for no or little accommodation will occur. When planning teachers should create opportunities of experiences that generate tonic ideas and divergence views this will require some reconstructing of thinking and belief. Also, when presenting new information to learners it is essential that this is done in a sequential and meaningful way this will facilitate organization of information and encourage learners to organize their thought into main ides, concepts and generalisation this helps students to consider past learning in a divisive and integrated way which can becomes problem solving tools.According to (Woolfolk 1990) Piaget also postulates a stage theory. He suggested that all children regardless of factors such as race and gender go though different stages of development, and that at each stage they think qualitatively different to the st age before. In the first stage sensorimortor, (birth to 2 years) is the time when infants gain knowledge about the world though manipulating objects and innate reflexes. They learn that an object will stop to exit even if it is out of sight Woolfolk (2003). The preoperational stage (2 to 7 years) children can now use imagery based on his or her memory of previous behaviour in the same situation (Good Brophy, 2008). Preschoolers language develops at an incredible rate. However their thinking remains egocentric and central. Therefore, teachers should use optical aids whenever possible. When given instructions to preschoolers, educators can allow them to act it out as well as give them oral information and do not expect students in the preoperational stage constantly see the world from others perceptive. Moreover opportunities must be provided for group word, this facilitates co-operation, and reduce subjectivity.The next stage is the concrete operational (age 7 to 12) Children at th is age are in schools they are able to solve concrete (hands on) problems (Slavin 2003). They heavily depend on concrete experiences to facilitate his or her thinking. Therefore, teacher must provide opportunities for learner in this stage to meaningfully manipulate objects. For example, when I am teaching topics such as addition or time I give student models of clocks or counter to aid their understanding. . Also, importantly students must have occasions to interact with the physical and social environmentThe final stage (age 12 and beyond) of cognitive development is defined by the childs ability to think abstractly and use logical hypothesis testing to solve problems. Teachers must therefore integrate new examples and illustration from previously taught lesson to last old learning. Also provide higher level problems to engage student in critical abstract thinking. In my teaching my questions and problems are set at different levels such as requires knowledge to answer, others re quired comprehension skills while other may need analysis skills.Vygotsky (1896-1934) is a Russian psychologist who made significant contributions to developmental and constructivism theory. He proposes a theory of development in which he presented several key concepts Legge Harari 2004). He viewed cognitive developments as a result of a dialectical process, where a child learns through shared problem solving experiences with someone else. It is primarily through their address that adults are assumed to transmit to children the rich body of knowledge that exists in their culture. As learning progresses, the childs own language comes to help as his or her primary tool of intellectual transformation (Slavin 2003).Another concept is his abstractive construct of the zone of proximal development (ZPD) which provides an explanation of how a child develops with the help of others (Woolfolk 2003). It is the gap between what children are already able to do and what they are not quite read y to accomplish by themselves (Slavin 2004). He explains how children develop through contact with others such as parents, teacher, siblings or a peer.The person interacting with the child undertakes most of the responsibility for guiding the problem solving, but stepwise this responsibility transfers to the child.Vygotsky also posited scaffolding. It is similar to scaffolding around a building. In that, it can be removed after the need for it ends. For instance, when a child is shown how to something and has mastered the idea he or she can now complete this assignment on his or her own.Vygotskys theory can be applied to the classroom, he suggests the teachersIs important in the process of the transmission of knowledge .This means teacher must ensure information given are accurate and useful to learners. Moreover, they must provide opportunities for peer tutoring, cooperative learning arrangements among student with mix-abilities. Personally I can attest that this approach works. S ince, I have successful use this in many of my lessons. entirelyow students to gradually take on more independent responsibilities, removing the scaffold.Teachers responsibilities are to facilitate learning, what teachers do in the classroom are important to the overall effect of students learning. Therefore, teachers enterprisingness to making learning occur must be his or her better(p) efforts. In so doing teachers can draw of all of the theories discussed in the essay. However, one must be mindful that these theories ha some thins in vulgar and differences.Behaviourism is concern about behaviour that can be discovered while cognitive psychology assumes that humans have the capacity to process and organise information in their mind. It is concerned less with observable behaviour and more with the thought processes behind it. Constructivism like congnitivism focuses on thinking processes and problem solving but also considered students reactions which is an important feature o f the behaviourist theory. All three discussed theories attempt to explain and describe how learning occurs and viewed education and the instructional process as a whole. However, behaviourism formed the basis for all learning theories.Cognitivism and constructivism both stressed the importance of forging relation between previous learnt information to new information. In other words, learners are pass judgment to relate new information to prior knowledge and experiences.As say before there is no ideal educational theory. However the approach teachers used in their daily instructions are important. The approaches they use should be based on a variety of issues, such as the age of the students, their cognitive processing level, the subject matter and difficulty of the required task in order to successfully achieve all the objectives.